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Ukiyo-e [a] is a genre of Japanese art which flourished from the 17th through 19th centuries. Its artists produced woodblock prints and paintings of such subjects as female beauties; kabuki actors and sumo wrestlers; scenes from history and folk tales; travel scenes and landscapes; flora and fauna ; and erotica. In , the city of Edo Tokyo became the seat of the ruling Tokugawa shogunate. The earliest ukiyo-e works emerged in the s, with Hishikawa Moronobu 's paintings and monochromatic prints of beautiful women.

Colour prints were introduced gradually, and at first were only used for special commissions. By the s, artists such as Okumura Masanobu used multiple woodblocks to print areas of colour. In the s, the success of Suzuki Harunobu 's "brocade prints" led to full-colour production becoming standard, with ten or more blocks used to create each print.

Some ukiyo-e artists specialized in making paintings, but most works were prints. Artists rarely carved their own woodblocks for printing; rather, production was divided between the artist, who designed the prints, the carver, who cut the woodblocks, the printer, who inked and pressed the woodblocks onto handmade paper , and the publisher, who financed, promoted, and distributed the works. As printing was done by hand, printers were able to achieve effects impractical with machines, such as the blending or gradation of colours on the printing block.

Specialists have prized the portraits of beauties and actors by masters such as Torii Kiyonaga , Utamaro , and Sharaku that came in the late 18th century. Following the deaths of these two masters, and against the technological and social modernization that followed the Meiji Restoration of , ukiyo-e production went into steep decline. Prints since the late 20th century have continued in an individualist vein, often made with techniques imported from the West. Ukiyo-e was central to forming the West's perception of Japanese art in the late 19th century, particularly the landscapes of Hokusai and Hiroshige.

Since antiquity, Japanese art had found patrons in the aristocracy, military governments, and religious authorities. The hand-produced nature of these shikomi-e [b] limited the scale of their production, a limit that was soon overcome by genres that turned to mass-produced woodblock printing.

During a prolonged period of civil war in the 16th century, a class of politically powerful merchants developed. He consolidated his government in the village of Edo modern Tokyo , [6] and required the territorial lords to assemble there in alternate years with their entourages. The demands of the growing capital drew many male labourers from the country, so that males came to make up nearly seventy percent of the population.

While deprived of their political influence, [5] those of the merchant class most benefited from the rapidly expanding economy of the Edo period, [8] and their improved lot allowed for leisure that many sought in the pleasure districts—in particular Yoshiwara in Edo [6] —and collecting artworks to decorate their homes, which in earlier times had been well beyond their financial means. Until the 17th century, such printing was reserved for Buddhist seals and images.

The term "ukiyo" , [c] which can be translated as "floating world", was homophonous with an ancient Buddhist term signifying "this world of sorrow and grief". The earliest ukiyo-e artists came from the world of Japanese painting. Around , painted hanging scrolls known as Portraits of Kanbun Beauties gained popularity. The paintings of the Kanbun era —73 , most of which are anonymous, marked the beginnings of ukiyo-e as an independent school. Scholars disagree whether Matabei's work itself is ukiyo-e; [18] assertions that he was the genre's founder are especially common amongst Japanese researchers.

In response to the increasing demand for ukiyo-e works, Hishikawa Moronobu — produced the first ukiyo-e woodblock prints. He was a prolific illustrator who worked in a wide variety of genres, and developed an influential style of portraying female beauties. Most significantly, he began to produce illustrations, not just for books, but as single-sheet images, which could stand alone or be used as part of a series.

The Hishikawa school attracted a large number of followers, [22] as well as imitators such as Sugimura Jihei , [23] and signalled the beginning of the popularization of a new artform. Ando and his followers produced a stereotyped female image whose design and pose lent itself to effective mass production, [26] and its popularity created a demand for paintings that other artists and schools took advantage of.

Kyoto native Nishikawa Sukenobu — painted technically refined pictures of courtesans. Even in the earliest monochromatic prints and books, colour was added by hand for special commissions. Demand for colour in the earlyth century was met with tan-e [e] prints hand-tinted with orange and sometimes green or yellow. In , the benizuri-e were the first successes in colour printing, using multiple woodblocks—one for each colour, the earliest beni pink and vegetable green.

A great self-promoter, Okumura Masanobu — played a major role during the period of rapid technical development in printing from the late 17th to midth centuries.

Amongst the innovations in his romantic, lyrical images were the introduction of geometrical perspective in the uki-e genre [g] in the s; [39] the long, narrow hashira-e prints; and the combination of graphics and literature in prints that included self-penned haiku poetry. Ukiyo-e reached a peak in the late 18th century with the advent of full-colour prints, developed after Edo returned to prosperity under Tanuma Okitsugu following a long depression.

These prints had the number of days for each month hidden in the design, and were sent at the New Year [h] as personalized greetings, bearing the name of the patron rather than the artist. The blocks for these prints were later re-used for commercial production, obliterating the patron's name and replacing it with that of the artist. The delicate, romantic prints of Suzuki Harunobu — were amongst the first to realize expressive and complex colour designs, [44] printed with up to a dozen separate blocks to handle the different colours [45] and half-tones.

The prolific Harunobu was the dominant ukiyo-e artist of his time. A trend against the idealism of the prints of Harunobu and the Torii school grew following Harunobu's death in In the s, Utagawa Toyoharu produced a number of uki-e perspective prints [52] that demonstrated a mastery of Western perspective techniques that had eluded his predecessors in the genre.

This school was to become one of the most influential, [55] and produced works in a far greater variety of genres than any other school. While the late 18th century saw hard economic times, [57] ukiyo-e saw a peak in quantity and quality of works, particularly during the Kansei era — Especially in the s, Torii Kiyonaga — [51] of the Torii school [58] depicted traditional ukiyo-e subjects like beauties and urban scenes, which he printed on large sheets of paper, often as multiprint horizontal diptychs or triptychs.

His works dispensed with the poetic dreamscapes made by Harunobu, opting instead for realistic depictions of idealized female forms dressed in the latest fashions and posed in scenic locations.

A law went into effect in requiring prints to bear a censor's seal of approval to be sold. Censorship increased in strictness over the following decades, and violators could receive harsh punishments.

From even preliminary drafts required approval. Utamaro c. Utamaro's individuated beauties were in sharp contrast to the stereotyped, idealized images that had been the norm. Appearing suddenly in and disappearing just as suddenly ten months later, the prints of the enigmatic Sharaku are amongst ukiyo-e's best known.

Sharaku produced striking portraits of kabuki actors, introducing a greater level of realism into his prints that emphasized the differences between the actor and the portrayed character. A consistent high level of quality marks ukiyo-e of the late 18th-century, but the works of Utamaro and Sharaku often overshadow those other masters of the era. He brought a refined sense to his portraits of graceful, slender courtesans, and left behind a number of noted students.

The Utagawa school came to dominate ukiyo-e output in the late Edo period. Edo was the primary centre of ukiyo-e production throughout the Edo period.

Another major centre developed in the Kamigata region of areas in and around Kyoto and Osaka. In contrast to the range of subjects in the Edo prints, those of Kamigata tended to be portraits of kabuki actors. The style of the Kamigata prints was little distinguished from those of Edo until the late 18th century, partly because artists often moved back and forth between the two areas. As a result, many ukiyo-e artists designed travel scenes and pictures of nature, especially birds and flowers.

It was not until late in the Edo period that landscape came into its own as a genre, especially via the works of Hokusai and Hiroshige The landscape genre has come to dominate Western perceptions of ukiyo-e, though ukiyo-e had a long history preceding these late-era masters.

The self-proclaimed "mad painter" Hokusai — enjoyed a long, varied career. His work is marked by a lack of the sentimentality common to ukiyo-e, and a focus on formalism influenced by Western art. Among his accomplishments are his illustrations of Takizawa Bakin 's novel Crescent Moon [ ja ] , his series of sketchbooks, the Hokusai Manga , and his popularization of the landscape genre with Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji , [76] which includes his best-known print, The Great Wave off Kanagawa , [77] one of the most famous works of Japanese art.

Though not often given the attention of their better-known forebears, the Utagawa school produced a few masters in this declining period.

The prolific Kunisada — had few rivals in the tradition of making portrait prints of courtesans and actors. Hiroshige — is considered Hokusai's greatest rival in stature. Following the deaths of Hokusai and Hiroshige [88] and the Meiji Restoration of , ukiyo-e suffered a sharp decline in quantity and quality. Practitioners of pure ukiyo-e became more rare, and tastes turned away from a genre seen as a remnant of an obsolescent era. Synthetic pigments imported from Germany began to replace traditional organic ones in the midth century.

Many prints from this era made extensive use of a bright red, and were called aka-e "red pictures". His One Hundred Aspects of the Moon — depicts a variety of fantastic and mundane themes with a moon motif. Aside from Dutch traders, who had had trading relations dating to the beginning of the Edo period, [95] Westerners paid little notice to Japanese art before the midth century, and when they did they rarely distinguished it from other art from the East.

The export of ukiyo-e thereafter slowly grew, and at the beginning of the 19th century Dutch merchant-trader Isaac Titsingh 's collection drew the attention of connoisseurs of art in Paris. The arrival in Edo of American Commodore Matthew Perry in led to the Convention of Kanagawa in , which opened Japan to the outside world after over two centuries of seclusion.

Ukiyo-e prints were amongst the items he brought back to the United States. Early Europeans promoters and scholars of ukiyo-e and Japanese art included writer Edmond de Goncourt and art critic Philippe Burty , [] who coined the term " Japonism ".

American Ernest Fenollosa was the earliest Western devotee of Japanese culture, and did much to promote Japanese art—Hokusai's works featured prominently at his inaugural exhibition as first curator of Japanese art Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, and in Tokyo in he curated the first ukiyo-e exhibition in Japan.

Tadamasa Hayashi was a prominent Paris-based dealer of respected tastes whose Tokyo office was responsible for evaluating and exporting large quantities of ukiyo-e prints to the West in such quantities that Japanese critics later accused him of siphoning Japan of its national treasure.

Japanese art, and particularly ukiyo-e prints, came to influence Western art from the time of the early Impressionists. The travel sketchbook became a popular genre beginning about , as the Meiji government promoted travel within Japan to have citizens better know their country.

Bartlett — In , he produced Fisherman using woodblock printing, a technique until then frowned upon by the Japanese art establishment as old-fashioned and for its association with commercial mass production. Screen printing , etching , mezzotint , mixed media , and other Western methods have joined traditional woodcutting amongst printmakers' techniques. Taj Mahal , Charles W.

Bartlett , Early ukiyo-e artists brought with them a sophisticated knowledge of and training in the composition principles of classical Chinese painting ; gradually these artists shed the overt Chinese influence to develop a native Japanese idiom. The early ukiyo-e artists have been called "Primitives" in the sense that the print medium was a new challenge to which they adapted these centuries-old techniques—their image designs are not considered "primitive". A defining feature of most ukiyo-e prints is a well-defined, bold, flat line.

Attention was drawn to vertical and horizontal relationships, as well as details such as lines, shapes, and patterns such as those on clothing. Elements of images were often cropped , giving the composition a spontaneous feel. The colourful, ostentatious, and complex patterns, concern with changing fashions, and tense, dynamic poses and compositions in ukiyo-e are in striking contrast with many concepts in traditional Japanese aesthetics.

Prominent amongst these, wabi-sabi favours simplicity, asymmetry, and imperfection, with evidence of the passage of time; [] and shibui values subtlety, humility, and restraint. Western-style geometrical perspective was known in Japan—practised most prominently by the Akita ranga painters of the s—as were Chinese methods to create a sense of depth using a homogeny of parallel lines.

The techniques sometimes appeared together in ukiyo-e works, geometrical perspective providing an illusion of depth in the background and the more expressive Chinese perspective in the fore.

There was a tendency since early ukiyo-e to pose beauties in what art historian Midori Wakakura [ ja ] called a "serpentine posture", [j] which involves the subjects' bodies twisting unnaturally while facing behind themselves.